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Introduction to Coastal Zone Management
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A coastal zone is often described as the coastal ocean and the land adjacent to it. Despite its relatively modest surface area, the coastal zone is one of the most geochemically and biologically active areas in of the biosphere. For example, it accounts for at least 15% of oceanic primary production; , 80% of organic matter burial; , 90% of sedimentary mineralization; , and 50% of the deposition of calcium carbonate. It also provides 90% of the world fish catch and its economic value has been recently estimated to comprise at least 40% of the total economic value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Additionally, coastal areas contain large amounts of biodiversity. However, this region is changing rapidly under human influences; about 40% of the world's population lives within 100 km kilometers of the coastline. As a result, our goal is to create solutions that would mitigate the effects of these negative influences on coastal habitats and wild fish stocks. (Gattuso et al. 2007)
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Source: hickerphoto.com
The water hydrosphere on earth is a constantly changing, dynamic system; it water flows, evaporates, condenses, is stored, and is absorbed. Events in one waterway later affect downstream waters and the ocean. The impacts of coastal zones on marine ecosystems and fisheries are profound , not only because of the incredible biodiversity and biomass in coastal waters, but also because of the various ecosystem functions that coastal areas perform. Coastal and estuarine areas are often critical spawning and recruitment grounds; damages to the ecosystem and to fisheries there can have wide-ranging effects on the population populations elsewhere. Furthermore, many fish migrate upstream into fresh waters to spawn (anadromous fish, like shad) or live in freshwater and spawn in the ocean (catadromous fish, like eels); changes in water quality or physical habitat can destroy these populations by decimating their ability to reproduce. The connections between freshwater, estuarine, and marine areas are many and are not yet fully understood. However, we do know that in order for creatures to survive, they require food, water, and a place to live . An organism's habitat must include all of these things. for survival. Without an environment in which its basic needs can be are fulfilled, an organism cannot survive. As such, our group proposes to maximize habitat and water quality in these areas so as to minimize fish mortality from environmental factors.
There are several classes of problems that affect habitat quality and fisheries. They include:
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(2) Non-point source pollution \[Link to child page 3\] |
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(3) Obstructions to migration \[Link to Child page 4\] |
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(4) Habitat destruction or alteration \[link to child page 5\] |
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(5) Invasive species \[link to child page 6\] |
WHAT ARE THE PROPOSED SOLUTIONS?
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*(1)** *{*}Water Quality Assessment and Regulation \[ link to child page 7\]* |
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*(2)** *{*}Establishment of Riparian Buffers \[link to child page 8\]* |
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*(3)** *{*}Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and other Fragile Coastal Ecosystems \[link to child page 9\]* |
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*(4)** *{*}Dam Planning and Regulation \[link to child page 10\]* |
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Point source pollution [Link to Child page 2]
(2) Non-point source pollution [Link to child page 3]
(3) Obstructions to migration [Link to Child page 4]
(4) Habitat destruction or alteration [link to child page 5]
(5) Invasive species [link to child page 6]
PROPOSED SOLUTIONS:
(1) Water Quality Assessment and Regulation [ link to child page 7]
(2) Establishment of Riparian Buffers [link to child page 8]
(3) Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and other Fragile Coastal Ecosystems [link to child page 9]
(4) Dam Planning and Regulation [link to child page 10]
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Point Source Pollution:
The most easily identifiable form of environmental contamination is point source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when contaminants are introduced to an ecosystem at a specific location and point in time. Common examples include:
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The effects of these various materials in aquatic ecosystems vary depending on the chemical or contaminant involved and the amount of the discharge; the regulation of discharges into water is an important aspect of the preservation of overall water quality.unmigrated-wiki-markup
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Non-point Source Pollution:
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A) Acting directly on the fish swimming in the water in which solids are suspended, either by killing them or reducing their growth rate, resistance to disease, etc. Increased turbidity and decreased light penetration alter fish feeding and schooling practices, which can lead leading to reduced survival. The high concentrations of sediments also irritate the gills of fish and can cause death. In addition, sediment can destroy the protective mucous mucus covering the eyes and scales of fish, making them fish more susceptible to infections.
B) Preventing the successful development of fish eggs and larvae. For example, especially under reduced flow conditions, settleable solids in river waters have the potential to be deposited in the stream, especially under reduced flow conditions, streams, where they may exert a detrimental influence on fish eggs in spawning beds.
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There are a variety of other toxins that can harm fish, even if present only in small quantities. Some toxins, such as PCBs and chlordane, are not only toxic but also tend to bioaccumulate, meaning that organisms high on the food chain ingest large amounts of the toxin through their prey and then have it build up in their bodies. Not only is this detrimental to fish and ecosystem health, but it is also a danger to consumers, who are at the top of the food chain. Health advisories are in place in many parts of the United States for high levels of mercury, PCBs, and chlordane in many fish and other aquatic species. Other contaminants, such as pesticides, can have severe effects on aquatic ecosystems by poisoning the most sensitive organisms. There is also evidence that pharmaceutical products, especially hormones, that are released into the water cause health problems in many species (Boxall et al, 2003). Other ecosystem-damaging contaminants like detergents, petroleum products, and industrial toxins also can be carried into waterways.unmigrated-wiki-markup
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Obstructions to Migration:
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According to the World Commission on Dams, 46% of the 106 primary watersheds on earth are affected by dams. These effects can include temperature changes (water held in a reservoir warms, while water which is released over the dam's head is cooled) and dissolved oxygen level changes (the warmer water in a dam's reservoir will have lower dissolved oxygen levels resulting from higher water temperatures and slower water velocity, while water below the dam may become super-saturated with oxygen and poison fish). These changes often favor invasive species, which can then outcompete the native biota. Dams also change the natural flow regimes, which are important triggers for biological cycles. Flow levels can enhance or suppress reproductive success for many species, as well serving to redistribute substrates (material comprising the river bottom) and bed-loads (Young, 1997large particles carried along the bottom) (Young, 1997). Furthermore, starvation of sediments because of retention by dams can alter the substrate composition downstream with huge effects on fish; studies on the Colorado River indicated that natural reproduction of fish species was suppressed because sandbar formation had ceased due to a lack of sediments (Young, 1997). The WCD reports that in many cases wetlands dry out and recharge of groundwater is diminished. Besides "trapping" water behind them, dams also act as particle traps, holding back nutrients and sediment. The downstream ecosystems that rely on these nutrients can suffer severely; the crash of Kokanee salmon was attributed to the drastic decrease in nutrient loading caused by the construction of two dams (Wuest). The changes in sediment transport can heavily influence the channel, floodplain, and delta morphology. In coastal areas, the erosion caused by waves is no longer counteracted by deposition of sediment; the WCD reports that the coastline of Togo and Benin has decreased by 10-15 meters per year after the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River was completed. There are indications that erosion may also result in a lack of floodplain fertility.
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Other problems associated with dams that are not related to fisheries at large but are large-scale impacts of dams, include displacement of native people (40-80 million) and a diminished ability of native people to collect the river's resources (WCD, 2000). Dam reservoirs also emit greenhouses gases, at times at levels larger than the area in a pre-dammed state, which can be a factor when dealing with climate change issues and legislation (WCD, 2000). It is also notable that in solving these issues, international politics may come heavily into play, as 261 watershed cross political boundaries and water security issues have been heated in the past (WCD, 2000).
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Habitat Destruction or Alteration:
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Wetlands:
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a wetland is an area where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the soil for significant portions of the year, including during the growing season. Wetlands act as the transition between the land and the water. The hydrology of the site plays an integral role in the determining the composition of the soil and the types of aquatic life that live there. Wetlands are unique ecosystems as they support both terrestrial and aquatic life. The prolonged presence of water creates conditions that favor the growth of specially adapted plants (hydrophytes) and promote the development of characteristic wetland (hydric) soils. !aerial2LG.jpg!Source: USGS
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According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, mangroves are coastal wetlands found in tropical and subtropical regions (U.S. EPA 2006). Mangroves are characterized by trees or shrubs that have the common trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt water or brackish waters, especially along quiet shorelines and in estuaries. These halophytic trees are able to thrive in salt water conditions because of specialized rooting structures (such as prop roots and pneumatophores), specialized reproduction (vivipary or live birth) and the ability to exclude or excrete salt (Lee County Government). In North America, mangroves are found from the southern tip of Florida along the Gulf Coast to Texas. The importance of mangroves has been well established. They support a wide diversity of animals and vegetation since these estuarine swamps are constantly replenished with nutrients transported by fresh water runoff from the land and flushed by the ebb and flow of the tides (U.S. EPA 2006). They also play a pivotal role in the life cycles of aquatic organisms. For example, they function as nurseries for a variety of marine biota. Seventy-five percent of the game fish and 90% of the commercial species in south Florida depend on mangrove ecosystems (Law et al.). In addition, these coastal wetlands are valued for their protection and stabilization of low-lying coastal lands against the threats of storm winds, waves, and floods. The amount of protection afforded by mangroves depends upon the width of the forest (Lee County Government). Although mangroves are increasingly threatened by human activities (such as dam construction and mangrove conversions), efforts are underway to enhance the protection of these threatened and valuable ecosystems (U.S. EPA 2006).
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(5) Invasive Species !1354035_lg.jpg|width=194,height=176!A seemingly innocuous invader, the zebra mussel, has devastated fisheries and industries in its host lands. Source: USGS !db_snakehead0031.jpg!The invasive snakehead. Source: USGS, Artist: Susan Trammell
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An important aspect of the invasive species problem is that once an invasive is present in an estem, it is often impossible to remove it; thus, it is essential to prevent invasive species from arriving in the first place.
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Water Quality Assessment and Regulation
In order to determine the management techniques for a specific waterway in respect to water quality, it is necessary to know the current and desired water quality levels for the waterway. Since the surroundings, hydrology, biota, etc. for each waterway differs, it is not feasible to generalize management techniques for each waterway, especially as water quality variables often interact (such as pH and dissolved metals concentration) (Chapman, 1996). As such, it is necessary for each ; we cannot solve a problem if we cannot first identify the problem. As such, it is necessary for each country to establish a system of water quality monitoring and a set of regulations regarding water quality levels. !RPE_AL_Dist5_lg.jpg!Source: USGS
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As indicated by the WHO (World Health Organization) in their report on water quality assessments, the choice of which water quality parameters to use can depend on the use of the waterway or on the expected pollution sources. We recommend that water quality be tested regularly in estuaries and major waterways that drain directly to the ocean; in all cases the water should be clean enough to support aquatic life. Initial attention should be given to the largest waterways and those that are expected to be highly polluted (i.e. those travelling traveling through an industrial sector or city), so that problem areas and areas of great importance are addressed first. Furthermore, by testing a larger body, the effects of tributary streams are taken into account, as those contaminants will still be present in the larger waterway. These tests should measure the following parameters recommended by the WHO for aquatic ecosystems (see chart below). From the data collected, the state of the waterway can be assessed and various solutions can be implemented.
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For parameters that do not meet standards, the source of the contamination should be identified. For point source pollutants that were discharged before the implementation of the law, the perpetrators should be notified of their infractions and ordered to stop the discharges. Polluters should also be given a time frame (suggested time is a year) in which the pollutant's effects must be mediated in order for business to continue. For point source pollutants that were discharged after the implementation of the law, the perpetrator must pay a fine to cover the costs of the environmental damage.
For non-point source pollutants, there are several ways to reduce the effects. Non-point source pollutants are carried into the water by runoff. Water travelling over the land picks up soil and other contaminants and carries them into the waterway. To reduce the concentrations of these contaminants, maintenance and reestablishment of riparian buffers (vegetative areas alongside waterways) is an effective solution, as is maintaining and reestablishing wetlands.
Biological indexes and standards are independent of the pollutant source; they merely categorize the species composition of an area by abundance of species sensitive to pollutants or environmental disturbance, abundance of species somewhat sensitive, and abundance of species tolerant of such disturbance. The complexity of the indexes can vary, but the underlying principle is that a healthy waterway has a variety of species of all three categories, and impaired waterways have a smaller variety and the species that are present fall into the latter categories. If biological monitoring is considered too expensive, it is possible to choose a method of sampling that is less expensive by sampling fish and large macroinvertebrates, since effects will eventually manifest at these levels; studies by the EPA have shown these studies to be more cost effective (EPA, 1988). However, it is important to note that small amounts of contaminants will affect the young and most sensitive organisms first, which may not necessarily be the fish. Monitoring of the habitat may also be taken into accountvaluable in assessing changes.
The EPA's guide to establishing a biological index shows an example of how such a system may be implemented (http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/biocriteria/States/estuaries/estuaries.pdf).
Discharges into waterways cannot be allowed to change the quality of water to levels below those specified in the standards. Furthermore, the non-degradation policy forbids decline in the quality of water in a waterway that exceed the minimum standards. To effect this, before a discharge is to be implemented, water quality measures should be taken to determine the baseline water quality of the waterway; note that water quality sampling parameters should be expanded or modified to accommodate pollutants that are likely to result from the industry in question. Both chemical and biological indexes will be used. Subsequent water quality measurements should be taken multiple times per year both above and below the discharge site; emphasis will be given to the biological indexes as it is more robust to temporal change, as aforementioned. If the discharge is found to be in the "pollutant" range, the company will be fined an amount sufficient to cover the environmental damage and proportional to the damage caused; the fine will be used to remediate the damage caused by the pollutant. Non-discharge offenses (i.e. dumping by a citizen or other unplanned discharges) will be dealt with in the same manner.
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To address these aspects of regulation, research needs to be conducted to the determine the relationship between the status of the physical environment and the functioning of the ecosystem. For example, with dredging or sediment extraction, the functional role of the substrate formations should be investigated to discover if the extraction would negatively impact critical spawning or other ecosystem services and if any predicted damages can be redressed. Findings of such studies should then be applied to minimize disturbance to the environment if the activity still needs to occur; the principle of "avoid, minimize, compensate" as advocated in the U.S. policy towards wetlands applies here.
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Shipping Regulation Shipping is a major source of contamination in coastal areas. Ballast water, for example, is a major transport mechanism for invasive species, while oil tankers can spill their cargoes. Shipping regulations should be created to minimize these risks.
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Future research should look explore alternative forms of ballast that that involve water contained in tanks that can be temporarily jettisoned and then reclaimed or other mechanisms to purify water within the ship. In this way, the transport of invasive species would be greatly diminished. Interested countries should support research into alternative forms of ballastthat minimize the risk of invasive transport.
However, many invasive species travel via other means---including intentional release (ex. Hydrilla in United States) such as the introduction of the red-eared slider in the United States (PA's 10 Least Wanted). To prevent this, strict trade regulations should be placed that prohibit the transport of non-native species between countries and between waterways within the same country to another (PA's 10 Least Wanted).
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Regulations should be created to restrict which types of boats may carry hazardous materials into or on a nation's waters. The regulations should include requirements for hull strength and features to prevent a spill if the ship runs aground or hits rocks. Ships should also be required to have up-to-date communications and navigation equipment. Shipping lanes for oil tankers that are safer or easier to navigate would also be beneficial. Ships should also be required to have an emergency response plan for the event of an oil spill that needs to be approved by the State whose waters are traversed. Appropriate government agencies should also have oil spill response plans. Finally, legislation should be passed that assigns responsibility for oil spills to the entity possessing the oil at the time of the spill. (adapted from the EPA's Oil Pollution Prevention and Response Final Rule, 2002)
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Establishment of Riparian Buffers:
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(6) Soils and root systems filter nutrients and pollutants from runoff (especially from agriculture and residential areas) before they reach reach surface areas from groundwater waters (Haberstock, 2000). !DCP00013.JPG!The vegetation on the sides of this waterway is an example of a riparian buffer. Source: USGS
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The width of the buffer depends on many factors, especially the slope of the land (steeper slopes require wider buffers, since steeper slopes allow water to flow faster and water's ability to carry sediments increases exponentially with volume (Chapman, 1996)), the permeability of the soil (less permeable soils require wider buffers because water takes longer to infiltrate), and the presence of overland water sources--like intermittent streams or gullies-which can render small buffers ineffective (Haberstock, 2000). The type of vegetation-such as wooded or ground level vegetation--as well as factors such as duff height can influence buffer efficacy (Haberstock, 2000). Buffer width is measured from the floodplain edge (Haberstock, 2000). Haberstock also notes that wetlands in these areas should be preserved, because they serve to fix nitrogen and retain contaminants and sediments; the issue of wetlands preservation is detailed on another page (LINK TO WETLANDS PAGE?). Ideally, a consult should be taken to determine the ideal width for an area.
However, if it is not economically feasible to establish a buffer of the recommended width, it is still beneficial to establish a riparian buffer of a smaller width. Studies have found that buffers of 20 feet of native grasses can remove up to 90% of nutrients and 80% of sediments in agricultural areas (Lutz). Furthermore, a riparian buffer does not mean that no human activity or industry can take place in these zones; for example, selective logging can take place if best-management practices are followed (for example, see http://mdc4.mdc.mo.gov/documents/441.pdfpages 5-21) and some agricultural activities such as growing nut trees can easily serve as a buffer and a source of income.
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Regulations should be established to preserve existing riparian corridors. Funds should also be made available to establish new buffers in problematic areas and to reestablish destroyed buffers.unmigrated-wiki-markup
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Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and Other Fragile Ecosystems:
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In areas where wetlands have been historically depleted, wetland reestablishment should be considered and economic incentives such as tax breaks could be offered to encourage it. These projects should be carefully planned, and it should be noted that reestablished or created wetlands may not serve the same ecological functions as natural wetlands.
Special attention should be given to wetlands that are unique, host rare species, or perform important functions. An example of this type of prioritization can be seen in the Ramsar Convention's Wetlands of International Importance list (http://www.ramsar.org/about/info2007-05-e.pdffor criteria).To protect fish, the destruction of wetlands should be stopped and ecologically necessary wetlands should be restored. While the lack of them is common across the globe, the need for specific ones and often the destruction of them due to natural disasters or human interference varies with location. Thus an important compilation of both local task forces, primarily lead by wetlands international (a compilation of regional offices and groups) assisted by and encouraged by laws and regulations is the best solution. Organizations like Wetlands International play a particularly important role in this setup because they both organize the needed local tasks forces and catalyze the political action process. Wetlands International's mission statement serves to clarify its duality in its proposal that it "works in local areas to help create restoration programs combined with stricter enforcement," (Finlayson, 2006-05-e.pdffor criteria).
A similar tactic should be employed for coral reef protection, especially with regards to regulation of destructive practices. Coral reefs should be given top priority in terms of aquatic resource protection. Educational efforts should also be expended to encourage public support for coral reef protection; education in this sector should be effective considering the immense beauty and intrinsic value of these areas. Other unique and critical habitats should be afforded specific legislative protection as well.
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Visitors to these unique ecosystems may be a source of income and also may make protection of these ecosystems easier, as tourism will increase public knowledge of and support for their existence. For coral reefs in the Florida Keys, the economic benefit derived from tourism is valued at $7.6 billion (Johns et al, 2001). The subsidy of ecologically friendly tourism ventures in these areas should be considered as a way to increase public interest in this area. Regulations should be in place, however, to ensure that ecological harm does not occur due to increased human and boat traffic.
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(4) Dam Planning and Regulation:
For dams that have not yet been built there are many steps that can be taken to minimize the impacts. First, efforts should be made to increase energy and water efficiency as much as possible; in the past, increases in technological efficiency, recycling, enforcement of environmental legislation, and reduction of industrial water use allowed water consumption to grow much slower than population (WCD). However, if a dam is definitely needed, research should be conducted to determine its environmental impacts. The World Commission on Dams reports that many of the negative impacts are not foreseen; it predicts that use of environmental impact assessments could significantly reduce these effects (WCD). Furthermore, proper placement of dams (such as on tributaries rather than on a main branch) and the use of minimal numbers of dams on a given river (because multiple dams can have cumulative effects, such as the dams leading to the Aral sea, which decreased water flow to such an extent that an increase in salinity and pollutants caused the entire fishery to collapse at a cost of approximately $1.25-2.5 billion per year) should be required by governments as such restrictions can minimize the large-scale negative impacts of large dams (WCD). Once these data are collected, the dam planning may begin; in this way, the dam design can take into account such features as gates that allow managed flood releases on a scale that can mitigate effects to the ecosystem; the permit for dam construction can require these provisions. The use of such managed floods in Kenya has been economically favorable by maintaining sectors of the economy that relied upon flows that would have been blocked entirely by damming (WCD). These floods help to release nutrients and sediments and help lessen the impact of the dam overall (WCD). These managed floods should be tailored to a specific river, as flood cycles are highly unique. It is important, however, that all such planning occurs before dam construction, as post-construction mitigation techniques have not been shown to be effective; the WCD reports rates of 20% effectiveness. It is possible that the IFIM (Instream Flow Incremental Methodology), as described earlier in (LINK TO WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND LEGISLATION) could be used to help predict the effects of a dam and the effects of controlled flooding. !damphoto.gif!Source: USGS
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Appropriate consideration of environmental impacts should be mandatory at every step of the dam planning process.unmigrated-wiki-markup
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Works Cited:
Chapman, D., & Kimstach, V., (1992/1996). Selection of Water Quality Variables. In Water Quality Assessments - a Guide to Use of Biota, Sediments and Water In Environmental Monitoring (chap. 3). Retrieved November 20, 2007, from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wqa/en/.
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World Commission on Dams. (2000). Dams and Development: a New Framework for Decision Making. World Commission on Dams. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from http://www.dams.org.unmigrated-wiki-markup.
Wuest, A., Moosmann, L., & Friedl, G., Alpine Hydroelectric Power Plants and the "Long-Range Effects" on Downstream Waters \ [electronic version\] (n.d). _EAWAG_, 55, Retrieved on October 17, 2007, from [http://www.eawag.ch/publications/eawagnews/www_en55/en55e_screen/en55e_wuest_s.pdf. ];
Young, L. M., (1997). Fish Habitat and Flow: What's the Connection. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from http://www.fish.state.pa.us/anglerboater/2001/ma2001/habtflow.htm.
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Great Fishing Needs Great Habitat. (1997). Retrieved October 29, 2007. From http://www.fish.state.pa.us/anglerboater/2001/jf2001/greathab.htm.
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Lutz, K. J., (n.d.) A Fish and Livestock Tale. Retrieved November 8, 2007, from http://www.fish.state.pa.us/anglerboater/2001/01_nov-dec/AFishandLivestockTale.pdf.
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Tidwell, M. (2005). Goodbye New Orleans. Alter New. http://www.alternet.org/katrina/29274 /?page=entire.
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Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, N., Duffy, J.E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson, J.B.C., Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J., Watson, R. (3 November 2006). Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services. Science Magazine, 314, 787-790. Retrieved 19
October 2007, from the World Wide Web: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/314/5800/787
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Environment Canada (2001). Why is sediment important? Retrieved November 2, 2007. URL: http://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/nature/sedim/e_effect.htmunmigrated-wiki-markup
Gattuso, Jean-Pierre and Stephen V. Smith (Lead Authors); J. Emmett Duffy (Topic EditorTopic Editor). 2007. "Coastal zone." In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland Cleveland (Washington,D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Council for Science and the Environment). \ [First published March 7, 2007; Last revised March Last revised March 20, 2007; Retrieved October 12, 2007\]. From [ From http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coastal_zone]
Knutsen, H., Jorde, P. E., Andre, C., & Stenseth, N. C. (2003). Fine-scaled geographical population structuring in a highly mobile marine species: The atlantic cod. Molecular ecology, 12(2), 385-394. Nieminen, M., Ahti, E., Nousiainen, H., Joensuu, S. & Vuollekoski, M. 2005.
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Rose, K. A., Cowan, J. H., Winemiller, K. O., Myers, R. A., & Hilborn, R. (2001). Compensatory density dependence in fish populations: Importance, controversy, understanding and prognosis. Fish and Fisheries, 2(4), 293-327. UniversityofNorth Carolina. Wetland Protection Plan. Retrieved November 2, 2007. URL: http://ils.unc.edu/parkproject/resource/scorp/scorp_ch6.pdf\\
Finlayson, M., (2006). Wetlands International Annual Review 2006. Retrieved from http://www.wetlands.org/publication.aspx?ID=c76e4f7a-41c5-4aca-9a73-ffc5e69f5d89
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