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| Composition Setup |
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The time integral of force. The net external impulse acting on a system over a given time interval is equal to the system's change in momentum. |
Motivation for Concept
Although some everyday interactions like gravity and friction result in stable forces whose effects can easily be analyzed with dynamics, many interactions are not steady. Consider, for example, the difference between a push and a punch. When you push something, you consciously use your muscles to apply a steady force to the target object. For this reason, pushing a bowling ball or a bean bag feels much the same, apart from the fact that the bean bag will probably deform more in response to the force. When you punch something, however, you simply let your fist fly. The force felt by the target object and the reaction force exterted on your fist are the result of the impact of your moving fist with the object. This impact is essentially out of your control. The force exterted is not determined solely by your muscles (though the faster your fist is moving, the greater the force will tend to be), but rather it is principally determined by the properties of your hand and the target object. Because of this fact, there is a dramatic difference between the results of punching a bean bag versus punching a bowling ball.
Such impact or collision forces are extremely common in everyday life. Almost any sport will involve collisions. Household activities like hammering nails or kneading dough require collisions. Understanding collisions is also of great importance to car manufacturers.
Unfortunately, the forces during a collision are very difficult to characterize. They change extremely rapidly in time (the entire duration of a typical collision is measured in milliseconds), and they manner in which they change is strongly dependent on the material properties of the objects undergoing the collision. Because of these complications, it is rare to see a detailed force profile for a collision. Instead, collisions are usually described by an effect that is much more easily observed: the resulting change in the motion of the participants. The impulse delivered by a collision is one measure of this change.
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Photos taken with a high-speed camera showing the impact of a tennis ball dropped from a height of 100 inches onto wood. |
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Note that the center images are less blurry than the first and last. Can you explain this? |
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The ball rebounds because it is elastic. The deformation of the ball observed in the center image is not permanent. The ball's structure causes it to return to its initial shape, and in the process it pushes itself off the ground. If the ball were made of clay, the deformation would remain and the ball would simply "splat" onto the ground (one more example of how structural differences complicate collision analysis). |
Definition of Net Impulse in terms of Momentum
Vector Change in Momentum
Suppose an object experiences a sudden interaction that results in a dramatic change in the object's momentum. One definition of the net impulse provided during the change in motion is to calculate the numerical value of the change in the object's momentum. In other words, the impulse J is:
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}{composition-setup} {excerpt}The time integral of [force|force]. The net [external|external force] impulse acting on a [system|system] over a given time interval is equal to the system's change in [momentum|momentum].{excerpt} h3. Motivation for Concept Although some everyday [interactions|interaction] like [gravity|gravitation (universal)] and [friction|friction] result in stable [forces|force] whose effects can easily be analyzed with [dynamics|Point Particle Dynamics], many interactions are not steady. Consider, for example, the difference between a push and a punch. When you push something, you consciously use your muscles to apply a steady [force|force] to the target object. For this reason, pushing a bowling ball or a bean bag feels much the same, apart from the fact that the bean bag will probably deform more in response to the [force]. When you punch something, however, you simply let your fist fly. The [force|force] felt by the target object and the [reaction force|Newton's Third Law] exterted on your fist are the result of the impact of your moving fist with the object. This impact is essentially out of your control. The [force] exterted is not determined solely by your muscles (though the faster your fist is moving, the greater the force will tend to be), but rather it is principally determined by the properties of your hand and the target object. Because of this fact, there is a dramatic difference between the results of punching a bean bag versus punching a bowling ball. Such impact or [collision forces|collision forces] are extremely common in everyday life. Almost any sport will involve collisions. Household activities like hammering nails or kneading dough require collisions. Understanding collisions is also of great importance to car manufacturers. Unfortunately, the forces during a collision are very difficult to characterize. They change extremely rapidly in time (the entire duration of a typical collision is measured in milliseconds), and they manner in which they change is strongly dependent on the material properties of the objects undergoing the collision. Because of these complications, it is rare to see a detailed force profile for a collision. Instead, collisions are usually described by an effect that is much more easily observed: the resulting change in the motion of the participants. The impulse delivered by a collision is one measure of this change. |!ball03.jpg|width=115!!ball04.jpg|width=115!!ball05.jpg|width=115!!ball06.jpg|width=115!!ball07.jpg|width=115!!ball08.jpg|width=115!| |Photos taken with a high-speed camera showing the impact of a tennis ball dropped from a height of 100 inches onto wood.\\The images shown are spaced by approximately 1 ms.\\Special thanks to James Bales at the [MIT Edgerton Center|http://web.mit.edu.ezproxyberklee.flo.org/edgerton] for helping Andrew Pawl to capture the image.\\For footage of tennis ball impacts at _much_ higher speeds see the [ITF website|http://www.itftennis.com/technical/].| {note}Note that the center images are less blurry than the first and last. Can you explain this?{note} {info}The ball rebounds because it is elastic. The deformation of the ball observed in the center image is not permanent. The ball's structure causes it to return to its initial shape, and in the process it pushes itself off the ground. If the ball were made of clay, the deformation would remain and the ball would simply "splat" onto the ground (one more example of how structural differences complicate collision analysis).{info} h3. Definition of Net Impulse in terms of Momentum h4. Vector Change in Momentum Suppose an object experiences a sudden [interaction|interaction] that results in a dramatic change in the object's [momentum|momentum]. One definition of the net impulse provided during the change in motion is to calculate the numerical value of the change in the object's [momentum|momentum]. In other words, the impulse _J_ is: {latex}\begin{large} \[ \vec{J}_{\rm net} = \vec{p}_{f} - \vec{p}_{i} = m\vec{v}_{f} - m\vec{v}_{i}\]\end{large}{latex} |
Note
...
that
...
because
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momentum
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is
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a
...
vector,
...
the
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change
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in
...
...
is
...
also
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a
...
...
.
...
Thus,
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the
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impulse
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is
...
by
...
defintion
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a
...
...
quantity.
...
As
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with
...
any
...
...
quantity,
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it
...
is
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important
...
to
...
remember
...
that
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the
...
calculation
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of
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impulse
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really
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involves
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three
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equations,
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one
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for
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each
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component:
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}\begin{large}\[ J_{{\rm net},x} = mv_{f,x} - mv_{i,x}\] \[ J_{{\rm net},y} = mv_{f,y} - mv_{i,y} \] \[ J_{{\rm net},z} = mv_{f,z} - mv_{i,z} \]\end{large}{latex} \\ \\ h4. |
Initial-State
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Final-State
...
Diagrams
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The
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vector
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nature
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of
...
...
means
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that
...
it
...
very
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important
...
when
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calculating
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the
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change
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to
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carefully
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set
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up
...
a
...
coordinate
...
system.
...
For
...
this
...
reason,
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it
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is
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strongly
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recommended
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that
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you
...
begin
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any
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problem
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involving
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a
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change
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in
...
...
by
...
constructing
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an
...
...
...
Definition of Impulse in terms of Force
Impulse and Newton's Second Law
The integral form of Newton's 2nd Law states that:
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|initial-state final-state diagram]. h3. Definition of Impulse in terms of Force h4. Impulse and Newton's Second Law The integral form of [Newton's 2nd Law|Newton's Second Law] states that: {latex}\begin{large} \[ \int_{t_{i}}^{t_{f}} \vec{F}_{\rm net}\;dt = p_{f} - p_{i}\]\end{large}{latex} |
Comparing
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this
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with
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our
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first
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definition
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of
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impulse,
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it
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is
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obvious
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that
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we
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can
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also
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define
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the
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total
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impulse
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as:
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}\begin{large} \[ \vec{J}_{\rm net} = \int_{t_{i}}^{t_{f}} \vec{F}_{\rm net} \; dt \]\end{large}{latex} |
Inspired
...
by
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this
...
definition,
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we
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will
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sometimes
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refer
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to
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the
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impulse
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provided
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by
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a
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single
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force
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as:
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}\begin{large} \[ \vec{J} = \int_{t_{i}}^{t_{f}} \vec{F} \; dt \]\end{large}{latex} |
so
...
that
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the
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net
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impulse
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acting
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on
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a
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system
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is:
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}\begin{large}\[ \vec{J}_{\rm net} = \sum_{\rm external} \vec{J} \]\end{large}{latex} {note}Impulses resulting from [internal forces|internal force] cancel by [ |
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Impulses resulting from internal forces cancel by Newton's ].{note} h4.. |
Time-Averaged
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Force
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Since
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collision
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forces
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often
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have
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a
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complicated
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time
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evolution,
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it
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is
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rare
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for
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them
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to
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be
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easily
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integrable
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as
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a
...
function
...
of
...
time.
...
Thus,
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it
...
is
...
rare
...
for
...
the
...
definition
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of
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impulse
...
in
...
terms
...
of
...
force
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to
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be
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used
...
to
...
find
...
impulse.
...
Instead,
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it
...
is
...
often
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used
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"in
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reverse"
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to
...
characterize
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the
...
forces
...
involved
...
in
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a
...
collision.
...
First,
...
the
...
change
...
in
...
impulse
...
of
...
the
...
object
...
involved
...
in
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the
...
collision
...
is
...
determined,
...
then
...
the
...
impulse
...
is
...
used
...
to
...
estimate
...
the
...
force.
...
Again,
...
the
...
detailed
...
form
...
of
...
the
...
force
...
will
...
be
...
too
...
complicated
...
to
...
find
...
in
...
this
...
way,
...
but
...
if
...
the
...
total
...
duration
...
of
...
the
...
collision, Δt=tf - ti, is known, then it is possible to find the time-averaged net force experienced by the object during the collision. The time-averaged net force is, by definition:
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Δ{_}t{_}={_}t{~}f{~}{_} - {_}t{~}i{~}{_}, is known, then it is possible to find the time-averaged net force experienced by the object during the collision. The time-averaged net force is, by definition: {latex}\begin{large}\[ <\vec{F}_{\rm net}>_{t} \equiv \frac{\int_{t_{i}}^{t_{f}} \vec{F}_{net} dt}{t_{f}-t_{i}}\]\end{large}{latex} |
This
...
definition
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makes
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it
...
clear
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that
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the
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time-averaged
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net
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force
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is
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directly
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related
...
to
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the
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net
...
impulse:
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}\begin{large}\[ <\vec{F}_{\rm net}>_{t} = \frac{\vec{J}_{\rm net}}{t_{f}-t_{i}} = \frac{\vec{J}_{\rm net}}{\Delta t} \]\end{large}{latex} {warning}It is also common in mechanics to discuss a [{_}distance{_}|distance]-averaged [force|force] found using the definition of [work|work]. These different averages will _not_ necessarily yield the same value! (Though they will, of course, give the same answer for the special case of a constant force.){warning} {info}To see why different averages need not give the same value, consider two babysitters who each make $15 per hour. They have the same _time-averaged_ income. Suppose, however, that one of the sitters gets jobs that last 3 hours on average, while the other's jobs are 4 hours. Their _job-averaged_ income is different ($45 vs. $60). Similarly, you could imagine two people who mow lawns for extra income, charging $40 per lawn. Their job-averaged income is the same, but their time-averaged income could be different if they tend to mow different sized lawns.{info} h4. Average Force and the Direction of Impulse Remembering that the impulse is directly proportional to the average net force in a collision may help you to gain an intuitive understanding for the direction of the impulse in many problems. Because they are directly related, the net impulse _must_ point in the same direction as the average net force. |
| Warning |
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It is also common in mechanics to discuss a distance-averaged force found using the definition of work. These different averages will not necessarily yield the same value! (Though they will, of course, give the same answer for the special case of a constant force.) |
| Info |
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To see why different averages need not give the same value, consider two babysitters who each make $15 per hour. They have the same time-averaged income. Suppose, however, that one of the sitters gets jobs that last 3 hours on average, while the other's jobs are 4 hours. Their job-averaged income is different ($45 vs. $60). Similarly, you could imagine two people who mow lawns for extra income, charging $40 per lawn. Their job-averaged income is the same, but their time-averaged income could be different if they tend to mow different sized lawns. |
Average Force and the Direction of Impulse
Remembering that the impulse is directly proportional to the average net force in a collision may help you to gain an intuitive understanding for the direction of the impulse in many problems. Because they are directly related, the net impulse must point in the same direction as the average net force.