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Introduction to Coastal Zone Management   

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There are several classes of problems that affect habitat quality and fisheries. They include:

Wiki Markup(1)    Point source pollution \[Link to Child page 2\]

(2)    Non-point source pollution \[Link to child page 3\]

(3)    Obstructions to migration \[Link to Child page 4\]

(4)    Habitat destruction or alteration \[link to child page 5\]

(5)    Invasive species \[link to child page 6\]

PROPOSED SOLUTIONS:

*(1)**   *{*}Water Quality Assessment and Regulation \[ link to child page 7\]*

*(2)**   *{*}Establishment of Riparian Buffers \[link to child page 8\]*

*(3)**   *{*}Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and other Fragile Coastal Ecosystems \[link to child page 9\]*

*(4)**   *{*}Dam Planning and Regulation \[link to child page 10\]*

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    Point source pollution [Link to Child page 2]

(2)    Non-point source pollution [Link to child page 3]

(3)    Obstructions to migration [Link to Child page 4]

(4)    Habitat destruction or alteration [link to child page 5]

(5)    Invasive species [link to child page 6]

PROPOSED SOLUTIONS:

(1)   Water Quality Assessment and Regulation [ link to child page 7]

(2)   Establishment of Riparian Buffers [link to child page 8]

(3)   Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and other Fragile Coastal Ecosystems [link to child page 9]

(4)   Dam Planning and Regulation [link to child page 10]

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 Point Source Pollution:

The most easily identifiable form of environmental contamination is point source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when contaminants are introduced to an ecosystem at a specific location and point in time. Common examples include:

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The effects of these various materials in aquatic ecosystems vary depending on the chemical or contaminant involved and the amount of the discharge; the regulation of discharges into water is an important aspect of the preservation of overall water quality.unmigrated-wiki-markup

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 Non-point Source Pollution:

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There are a variety of other toxins that can harm fish, even if present only in small quantities. Some toxins, such as PCBs and chlordane, are not only toxic but also tend to bioaccumulate, meaning that organisms high on the food chain ingest large amounts of the toxin through their prey and then have it build up in their bodies. Not only is this detrimental to fish and ecosystem health, but it is also a danger to consumers, who are at the top of the food chain. Health advisories are in place in many parts of the United States for high levels of mercury, PCBs, and chlordane in many fish and other aquatic species.  Other contaminants, such as pesticides, can have severe effects on aquatic ecosystems by poisoning the most sensitive organisms. There is also evidence that pharmaceutical products, especially hormones, that are released into the water cause health problems in many species (Boxall et al, 2003). Other ecosystem-damaging contaminants like detergents, petroleum products, and industrial toxins also can be carried into waterways.

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Obstructions to Migration:

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Other problems associated with dams that are not related to fisheries at large but are large-scale impacts of dams, include displacement of native people (40-80 million) and a diminished ability of native people to collect the river's resources (WCD, 2000). Dam reservoirs also emit greenhouses gases, at times at levels larger than the area in a pre-dammed state, which can be a factor when dealing with climate change issues and legislation (WCD, 2000). It is also notable that in solving these issues, international politics may come heavily into play, as 261 watershed cross political boundaries and water security issues have been heated in the past (WCD, 2000).

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Habitat Destruction or Alteration:

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According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, mangroves are coastal wetlands found in tropical and subtropical regions (U.S. EPA 2006). Mangroves are characterized by trees or shrubs that have the common trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt water or brackish waters, especially along quiet shorelines and in estuaries. These halophytic trees are able to thrive in salt water conditions because of specialized rooting structures (such as prop roots and pneumatophores), specialized reproduction (vivipary or live birth) and the ability to exclude or excrete salt (Lee County Government).  In North America, mangroves are found from the southern tip of Florida along the Gulf Coast to Texas. The importance of mangroves has been well established. They support a wide diversity of animals and vegetation since these estuarine swamps are constantly replenished with nutrients transported by fresh water runoff from the land and flushed by the ebb and flow of the tides (U.S. EPA 2006). They also play a pivotal role in the life cycles of aquatic organisms. For example, they function as nurseries for a variety of marine biota.   Seventy-five percent of the game fish and 90% of the commercial species in south Florida depend on mangrove ecosystems (Law et al.). In addition, these coastal wetlands are valued for their protection and stabilization of low-lying coastal lands against the threats of storm winds, waves, and floods. The amount of protection afforded by mangroves depends upon the width of the forest (Lee County Government). Although mangroves are increasingly threatened by human activities (such as dam construction and mangrove conversions), efforts are underway to enhance the protection of these threatened and valuable ecosystems (U.S. EPA 2006).unmigrated-wiki-markup

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(5) Invasive Species !1354035_lg.jpg|width=194,height=176!A seemingly innocuous invader, the zebra mussel, has devastated fisheries and industries in its host lands. Source: USGS !db_snakehead0031.jpg!The invasive snakehead. Source: USGS, Artist: Susan Trammell

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An important aspect of the invasive species problem is that once an invasive is present in an estem, it is often impossible to remove it; thus, it is essential to prevent invasive species from arriving in the first place.unmigrated-wiki-markup

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Water Quality Assessment and Regulation

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                Discharges into waterways cannot be allowed to change the quality of water to levels below those specified in the standards. Furthermore, the non-degradation policy forbids decline in the quality of water in a waterway that exceed the minimum standards. To effect this, before a discharge is to be implemented, water quality measures should be taken to determine the baseline water quality of the waterway; note that water quality sampling parameters should be expanded or modified to accommodate pollutants that are likely to result from the industry in question. Both chemical and biological indexes will be used. Subsequent water quality measurements should be taken multiple times per year both above and below the discharge site; emphasis will be given to the biological indexes as it is more robust to temporal change, as aforementioned. If the discharge is found to be in the "pollutant" range, the company will be fined an amount sufficient to cover the environmental damage and proportional to the damage caused; the fine will be used to remediate the damage caused by the pollutant. Non-discharge offenses (i.e. dumping by a citizen or other unplanned discharges) will be dealt with in the same manner.; the fine will be used to remediate the damage caused by the pollutant. Non-discharge offenses (i.e. dumping by a citizen or other unplanned discharges) will be dealt with in the same manner.

                However, extraction of materials from ecosystems is also an issue in coastal zone management. Extraction of sediments or other mining operations causes severe changes in substrate composition and the overall habitat, not to mention the possible pollutant re-suspension involved in these operations (i.e. of sediments). Extraction of water (either surface water extractions or ground water extractions, as from wells) itself also changes the aquatic ecosystem in many ways--both from a physical and chemical standpoint. Information about the effects of dams on water quality is [here-LINK TO DAMS PAGE Wiki Markup                However, extraction of materials from ecosystems is also an issue in coastal zone management. Extraction of sediments or other mining operations causes severe changes in substrate composition and the overall habitat, not to mention the possible pollutant re-suspension involved in these operations (i.e. of sediments). Extraction of water (either surface water extractions or ground water extractions, as from wells) itself also changes the aquatic ecosystem in many ways-\--both from a physical and chemical standpoint. Information about the effects of dams on water quality is \[here-\-LINK TO DAMS PAGE\].

                To address these aspects of regulation, research needs to be conducted to the determine the relationship between the status of the physical environment and the functioning of the ecosystem. For example, with dredging or sediment extraction, the functional role of the substrate formations should be investigated to discover if the extraction would negatively impact critical spawning or other ecosystem services and if any predicted damages can be redressed. Findings of such studies should then be applied to minimize disturbance to the environment if the activity still needs to occur; the principle of "avoid, minimize, compensate" as advocated in the U.S. policy towards wetlands applies here.

Wiki Markup                For water withdrawals (or large water discharges) we propose the use of IFIM (Incremental Flow Incremental Methodology) to evaluate the effects of the withdrawal before it takes place, so that planning and permitting can take place before withdrawals begin. The IFIM model can be used to predict how changes in flow will affect various other water quality parameters like temperature and how these changes will affect fish populations (Young, 1997). The results of the model can be used in the permitting process to make initial suggestions and limitations; however, regulation should be elastic enough so that withdrawal limitations can be changed if harm is observed. Special attention should be given to processes which may fundamentally alter sediment and nutrient transport, as alterations can negatively impact estuarine and lower waters to a great extent, as discussed in the page on dams \[LINK TO DAMS PAGE\                For water withdrawals (or large water discharges) we propose the use of IFIM (Incremental Flow Incremental Methodology) to evaluate the effects of the withdrawal before it takes place, so that planning and permitting can take place before withdrawals begin. The IFIM model can be used to predict how changes in flow will affect various other water quality parameters like temperature and how these changes will affect fish populations (Young, 1997). The results of the model can be used in the permitting process to make initial suggestions and limitations; however, regulation should be elastic enough so that withdrawal limitations can be changed if harm is observed. Special attention should be given to processes which may fundamentally alter sediment and nutrient transport, as alterations can negatively impact estuarine and lower waters to a great extent, as discussed in the page on dams [LINK TO DAMS PAGE].

Shipping Regulation Shipping is a major source of contamination in coastal areas.  Ballast water, for example, is a major transport mechanism for invasive species, while oil tankers can spill their cargoes. Shipping regulations should be created to minimize these risks.

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                Regulations should be created to restrict which types of boats may carry hazardous materials into  or on a nation's waters. The regulations should include requirements for hull strength and features to prevent a spill if the ship runs aground or hits rocks. Ships should also be required to have up-to-date communications and navigation equipment.  Shipping lanes for oil tankers that are safer or easier to navigate would also be beneficial. Ships should also be required to have an emergency response plan for the event of an oil spill that needs to be approved by the State whose waters are traversed.  Appropriate government agencies should also have oil spill response plans.  Finally, legislation should be passed that assigns responsibility for oil spills to the entity possessing the oil at the time of the spill. (adapted from the EPA's Oil Pollution Prevention and Response Final Rule, 2002)

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Establishment of Riparian Buffers:

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Regulations should be established to preserve existing riparian corridors. Funds should also be made available to establish new buffers in problematic areas and to reestablish destroyed buffers.unmigrated-wiki-markup

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 Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and Other Fragile Ecosystems:

Wiki MarkupLegislation should be enacted to protect wetlands against disturbance and destruction. Again, the principle of enacted to protect wetlands against disturbance and destruction. Again, the principle of "avoid, minimize, compensate" should be used in permitting should be used in permitting processes, which should identify wetland areas and provide for their maintenance.  Damaging a wetland should always be a last resort and should be compensated for by the construction of another wetland or by paying the appropriate government to build or improve another wetland elsewhere. (See \[LINK TO RIPARIAN BUFFER PAGE\] for this concept's application to riparian areas and provide for their maintenance.  Damaging a wetland should always be a last resort and should be compensated for by the construction of another wetland or by paying the appropriate government to build or improve another wetland elsewhere. (See [LINK TO RIPARIAN BUFFER PAGE] for this concept's application to riparian areas).

In areas where wetlands have been historically depleted, wetland reestablishment should be considered and economic incentives such as tax breaks could be offered to encourage it.  These projects should be carefully planned, and it should be noted that reestablished or created wetlands may not serve the same ecological functions as natural wetlands.

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Visitors to these unique ecosystems may be a source of income and also may make protection of these ecosystems easier, as tourism will increase public knowledge of and support for their existence. For coral reefs in the Florida Keys, the economic benefit derived from tourism is valued at $7.6 billion (Johns et al, 2001). The subsidy of ecologically friendly tourism ventures in these areas should be considered as a way to increase public interest in this area. Regulations should be in place, however, to ensure that ecological harm does not occur due to increased human and boat traffic.

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(4) Dam Planning and Regulation:

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Appropriate consideration of environmental impacts should be mandatory at every step of the dam planning process.unmigrated-wiki-markup

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Works Cited:

Chapman, D., & Kimstach, V., (1992/1996). Selection of Water Quality Variables.  In Water Quality Assessments - a Guide to Use of Biota, Sediments and Water In Environmental Monitoring (chap. 3). Retrieved November 20, 2007, from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wqa/en/.

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World Commission on Dams. (2000). Dams and Development: a New Framework for Decision Making. World Commission on Dams. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from http://www.dams.org.unmigrated-wiki-markup.

Wuest, A., Moosmann, L., & Friedl, G., Alpine Hydroelectric Power Plants and the "Long-Range Effects" on Downstream Waters \ [electronic version\] (n.d). _EAWAG_, 55, Retrieved on October 17, 2007, from [http://www.eawag.ch/publications/eawagnews/www_en55/en55e_screen/en55e_wuest_s.pdf.&nbsp];

Young, L. M., (1997). Fish Habitat and Flow: What's the Connection. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from http://www.fish.state.pa.us/anglerboater/2001/ma2001/habtflow.htm.

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Great Fishing Needs Great Habitat. (1997). Retrieved October 29, 2007. From http://www.fish.state.pa.us/anglerboater/2001/jf2001/greathab.htm.

Wiki MarkupHaberstock, A.E., Nichols, H.G., DesMeules, M.P., Wright, J.,Christensen, J.M., and Hudnut, D.H., (2000.) _Method_ to Identify Effective Riparian Buffer Widths for Atlantic Salmon Habitat \ [electronic version\]. _Journal of the American Water Resources Association._ 36, 6, 1271-1286.

Lutz, K. J., (n.d.) A Fish and Livestock Tale. Retrieved November 8, 2007, from http://www.fish.state.pa.us/anglerboater/2001/01_nov-dec/AFishandLivestockTale.pdf.

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Tidwell, M. (2005). Goodbye New Orleans. Alter New. http://www.alternet.org/katrina/29274 /?page=entire.

Wiki MarkupCleveland, C. (Lead Author); Black, B. (Topic Editor), (2007). Three Gorges Dam, China. In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). \ [First published in September 21, 2006; Last revised January 17, 2007; Retrieved November 18, 2007\]. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Three_Gorges_Dam,_China]

Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, N., Duffy, J.E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson, J.B.C., Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J., Watson, R. (3 November 2006). Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services. Science Magazine, 314, 787-790.  Retrieved 19
October 2007, from the World Wide Web: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/314/5800/787

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Environment Canada (2001). Why is sediment important? Retrieved November 2, 2007. URL: http://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/nature/sedim/e_effect.htmunmigrated-wiki-markup

Gattuso, Jean-Pierre and Stephen V. Smith (Lead Authors); J. Emmett Duffy (Topic EditorTopic Editor). 2007. "Coastal zone." In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland   Cleveland   (Washington,D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for  Science and the Council for  Science and the Environment). \ [First published March 7, 2007; Last revised March Last revised March 20, 2007; Retrieved October 12, 2007\].  From [  From http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coastal_zone]

 Knutsen, H., Jorde, P. E., Andre, C., & Stenseth, N. C. (2003). Fine-scaled geographical population structuring in a highly mobile marine species: The atlantic cod. Molecular ecology, 12(2), 385-394. Nieminen, M., Ahti, E., Nousiainen, H., Joensuu, S. & Vuollekoski, M. 2005.        

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Rose, K. A., Cowan, J. H., Winemiller, K. O., Myers, R. A., & Hilborn, R. (2001). Compensatory density dependence in fish populations: Importance, controversy, understanding and prognosis. Fish and Fisheries, 2(4), 293-327. UniversityofNorth Carolina. Wetland Protection Plan. Retrieved November 2, 2007. URL: http://ils.unc.edu/parkproject/resource/scorp/scorp_ch6.pdf\\^{Image Removed}

Finlayson, M., (2006). Wetlands International Annual Review 2006. Retrieved from http://www.wetlands.org/publication.aspx?ID=c76e4f7a-41c5-4aca-9a73-ffc5e69f5d89

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