The Oceans
The oceans are on the verge of complete collapse. This statement is fact, as has been found by several reputable reports: the decrease in biodiversity due to overfishing and invasive species, the chemical threats of global warming and pollution, and destructive and increasingly efficient fishing technology--among other causes--have been found to fundamentally alter the state of the oceans in a decidedly negative manner.
The Pew Oceans Commission is a part of a highly respected U.S. based independent nonprofit trust that focuses on solving and educating the public on today's most challenging problems. The "Policy" page of the "Protecting Ocean Life" section clearly defines the current problem:
"Marine life is threatened by human activity and has become more endangered than ever before. A recent study in the journal Science found that over the centuries humans have caused the depletion of 90 percent of the ocean's large predators, the elimination of 65 percent of seagrass and wetland habitat, the degradation of water quality 10- to 1,000-fold, and the acceleration of species invasions in 12 major estuaries and coastal seas around the world" (Pew).
Findings released more than a year ago in Science Magazine provide overwhelming evidence that loss in marine biodiversity, which is "directly caused by exploitation, pollution, and habitat destruction, or indirectly through climate change and related perturbations of ocean biochemistry" (Worm et al., 2006, p. 787), lead to significant overall decrease in productivity. This decrease in biodiversity and subsequent decrease in productivity, as well as the disruption of ocean currents from global pollution (Pew), directly impacts all of humanity, from those who eat and catch fish to the land-locked nations without any immediate connection to the fishing industry. Boris Worm, the scientist who introduced the idea of "no fish by 2050," quoted in an article as saying, "we're going to run out of viable fisheries, out of all seafood species by the year 2050" (ScienCentral, 2006), in conjunction with several other authors, issued the report in Science Magazine relating the devastating effect of the loss of biodiversity:
"Human-dominated marine ecosystems are experiencing accelerating loss of populations and species, with largely unknown consequences. We analyzed local experiments, long-term regional time series, and global fisheries data to test how biodiversity loss affects marine ecosystems services across temporal and spatial scales. Overall, rates of resource collapse increased and recovery potential, stability, and water quality decreased exponentially with declining diversity. Restoring of biodiversity, in contrast, increased productivity fourfold and decreased variability by 21%, on average. We conclude that marine biodiversity loss in increasingly impairing the ocean's capacity to provide food, maintain water quality, and recover from perturbations. Yet available data suggest that at this point, these trends are still reversible" (Worm et al., 2006, p. 787).
Fish Consumption
One of the largest problems the oceans face today is the increasing demand for fish products. As stocks are continuously fished beyond sustainable levels and demand increases, fish populations world wide face the possibility of collapse.
"Global consumption of fish has doubled since 1973, and the developing world has been responsible for nearly all of this growth. Countries with rapid population growth, rapid income growth, and urbanization tend to have the greatest increases in consumption of animal products, including fish products, and the developing world has experienced all three trends. China, where income growth and urbanization have been major factors, dominates consumption of fish products. It accounted for about 36 percent of global consumption in 1997, compared with only 11 percent in 1973. India and Southeast Asia together accounted for another 17 percent in 1997, with total consumption doubling since 1973. Although total fish consumption declined somewhat in developed countries, this decline was dwarfed by increase in the developing world" (Ahmed et al., 2003).
Whaling
Trading Regulations
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora regulates the export and import of endangered plants and animals between countries. All species under this regulation fit under three categories: Appendix I, Appendix II, and Appendix III (CITES, 2007a). Appendix I includes species threatened by extinction; export and import permits (distributed by the Management Authority of the State) are required. Appendix II includes species in which trade must be controlled against utilization which threaten survival; only export permits are required in this group. Appendix III includes species that are protected by at least one country which has asked for assistance regarding trade; export permits and certificates of origin are required for such species. Cetacean species under Appendix I include the bowhead whale, right whale, humpback whale, roqual whale, grey whale, pygmy right whale, sperm whale, beaked whales, bottle-nosed whales, dolphins, river dolphins, and porpoises (CITES, 2007b). All other species of whales are listed under Appendix II.
Problems with the Whaling Situation
Commercial Whaling
Objections to any decision made by the IWC can be raised, provided that it be done within ninety days of notification of the decision, in which case other countries will have further time to object (IWC, 2007b). Both Norway and Iceland currently continue with their commercial whaling industry under claims that the decision to set zero catch limits adversely affect respective national interests and thus do not apply. However, such objections were not made until years after the decision was made by the IWC; therefore, legal issues exist regarding this disregard of the moratorium.
However, studies commissioned by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the Iceland Nature Conservation Association (INCA) have shown that demand for whale meat is very minimal in Iceland and Norway (IFAW, 2007). In addition, regulations set by CITES should prevent the export of whale meat to other countries - consumption of whale products should be limited to the country in which the whale was hunted; Japan, the country with the leading demand for whales, would not be allowed to import any whales. With this combination, Iceland and Norway should have no reason to continue with their commercial whaling endeavors.
Scientific Whaling
Despite the zero catch limit set by the IWC, individual nations can still issue scientific permits that allow the lethal hunting of whales for research purposes. The right to issue such licenses are under the control of each nation and override any other Commission regulation, including the moratorium and sanctuaries (IWC, 2007c). Currently, only Japan, Iceland, and Norway are utilizing this right to kill whales for scientific research. Accusations have been made by several third-party organizations, stating that these permits have been used as a loophole to the IWC moratorium and that the whales caught during such research are being killed for commercial use. Japan has denied such claims.
Subsistence Whaling
Several aboriginal communities that depend on whale meat for nutrition have been allowed to hunt whales, with catch limits set by the IWC (IWC, 2007a). An Aboriginal Whaling Scheme will be established and will comprise the scientific and logistical aspects of the management of all aboriginal fisheries.
Works Cited
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. (2007). The CITES Appendices. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.shtml.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. (2007). Appendices I, II, and III. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml.
International Fund for Animal Welfare. (2006). 82% of young people in Iceland never eat whale meat. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.ifaw.org/ifaw/general/default.aspx?oid=178538.
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Catch Limits
...work in progress. still reading
Fish Consumption
One of the largest problems the oceans face today is the increasing demand for fish products. As stocks are continuously fished beyond sustainable levels and demand increases, fish populations world wide face the possibility of collapse.
"Global consumption of fish has doubled since 1973, and the developing world has been responsible for nearly all of this growth. Countries with rapid population growth, rapid income growth, and urbanization tend to have the greatest increases in consumption of animal products, including fish products, and the developing world has experienced all three trends. China, where income growth and urbanization have been major factors, dominates consumption of fish products. It accounted for about 36 percent of global consumption in 1997, compared with only 11 percent in 1973. India and Southeast Asia together accounted for another 17 percent in 1997, with total consumption doubling since 1973. Although total fish consumption declined somewhat in developed countries, this decline was dwarfed by increase in the developing world" (Ahmed et al., 2003).
Whaling
Trading Regulations
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora regulates the export and import of endangered plants and animals between countries. All species under this regulation fit under three categories: Appendix I, Appendix II, and Appendix III (CITES, 2007a). Appendix I includes species threatened by extinction; export and import permits (distributed by the Management Authority of the State) are required. Appendix II includes species in which trade must be controlled against utilization which threaten survival; only export permits are required in this group. Appendix III includes species that are protected by at least one country which has asked for assistance regarding trade; export permits and certificates of origin are required for such species. Cetacean species under Appendix I include the bowhead whale, right whale, humpback whale, roqual whale, grey whale, pygmy right whale, sperm whale, beaked whales, bottle-nosed whales, dolphins, river dolphins, and porpoises (CITES, 2007b). All other species of whales are listed under Appendix II.
Problems with the Whaling Situation
Commercial Whaling
Objections to any decision made by the IWC can be raised, provided that it be done within ninety days of notification of the decision, in which case other countries will have further time to object (IWC, 2007b). Both Norway and Iceland currently continue with their commercial whaling industry under claims that the decision to set zero catch limits adversely affect respective national interests and thus do not apply. However, such objections were not made until years after the decision was made by the IWC; therefore, legal issues exist regarding this disregard of the moratorium.
However, studies commissioned by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the Iceland Nature Conservation Association (INCA) have shown that demand for whale meat is very minimal in Iceland and Norway (IFAW, 2007). In addition, regulations set by CITES should prevent the export of whale meat to other countries - consumption of whale products should be limited to the country in which the whale was hunted; Japan, the country with the leading demand for whales, would not be allowed to import any whales. With this combination, Iceland and Norway should have no reason to continue with their commercial whaling endeavors.
Scientific Whaling
Despite the zero catch limit set by the IWC, individual nations can still issue scientific permits that allow the lethal hunting of whales for research purposes. The right to issue such licenses are under the control of each nation and override any other Commission regulation, including the moratorium and sanctuaries (IWC, 2007c). Currently, only Japan, Iceland, and Norway are utilizing this right to kill whales for scientific research. Accusations have been made by several third-party organizations, stating that these permits have been used as a loophole to the IWC moratorium and that the whales caught during such research are being killed for commercial use. Japan has denied such claims.
Subsistence Whaling
Several aboriginal communities that depend on whale meat for nutrition have been allowed to hunt whales, with catch limits set by the IWC (IWC, 2007a). An Aboriginal Whaling Scheme will be established and will comprise the scientific and logistical aspects of the management of all aboriginal fisheries.
Works Cited
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. (2007). The CITES Appendices. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.citesiwcoffice.org/engconservation/app/index.shtml
catches.htm.Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Appendices I, II, and IIICommission Information. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.citesiwcoffice.org/engcommission/app/appendices.shtmliwcmain.htm.
International Fund for Animal WelfareWhaling Commission. (20062007). 82% of young people in Iceland never eat whale meatScientific Permits. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.ifawiwcoffice.org/ifawconservation/general/default.aspx?oid=178538.
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Catch Limits. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/catches.htm.
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Commission Information. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/iwcmain.htm.
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Scientific Permits. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/permits.htm.
The World Fisheries
"In 2000, the FAO stated that 72% of the world's marine fish resources are either fully exploited or in decline. This state of overexploitation has led to practices in cascade fishing, where smaller, immature individuals or different stocks of lesser value and quality replace the former stocks that existed in higher trophic levels. Thus, leading to the current declining trend in fish harvest from high-value demersal fish to lower-value pelagic fish" (Duke).
According to Annual Commercial Landing Statistics from NOAA, the tonnage of fish caught in US fisheries from 1950 to 2006 has nearly doubled to more than 4.3 million tons per annum, with a peak in 1997 at nearly 4.8 million tons (NOAA, 2007).
International Cooperation
Currently, there are several international organizations working towards aspects of our goal to save the oceans. The UN has employed several research and management groups and set out governance of the oceans by the Law of the Sea and subsequent agreements and annexes. Other organizations for protection of the oceans fall under Regional Fishery Bodies (RFBs), also known as Regional Fishery Management Councils.
Current International Legislation
The Law of the Sea is a complex and comprehensive document that, when put into action after the Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982, formalized traditional maritime law, as well as outlined conduct of nations as it relates to boundaries, deep seabed mining, passage through territorial zones, settlement of international disputes, and marine research, among other topics. The Law of the Sea Treaty "marked the culmination of more than 14 years of work involving participation by more than 150 countries representing all regions of the world, all legal and political systems and the spectrum of socio/economic development" (Oceans and LOS, 2007).
The World Fisheries
"In 2000, the FAO stated that 72% of the world's marine fish resources are either fully exploited or in decline. This state of overexploitation has led to practices in cascade fishing, where smaller, immature individuals or different stocks of lesser value and quality replace the former stocks that existed in higher trophic levels. Thus, leading to the current declining trend in fish harvest from high-value demersal fish to lower-value pelagic fish" (Duke).
According to Annual Commercial Landing Statistics from NOAA, the tonnage of fish caught in US fisheries from 1950 to 2006 has nearly doubled to more than 4.3 million tons per annum, with a peak in 1997 at nearly 4.8 million tons (NOAA, 2007).
International Cooperation
Currently, there are several international organizations working towards aspects of our goal to save the oceans. The UN has employed several research and management groups and set out governance of the oceans by the Law of the Sea and subsequent agreements and annexes. Other organizations for protection of the oceans fall under Regional Fishery Bodies (RFBs), also known as Regional Fishery Management Councils.
Current International Legislation
The Law of the Sea is a complex and comprehensive document that, when put into action after the Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982, formalized traditional maritime law, as well as outlined conduct of nations as it relates to boundaries, deep seabed mining, passage through territorial zones, settlement of international disputes, and marine research, among other topics. The Law of the Sea Treaty "marked the culmination of more than 14 years of work involving participation by more than 150 countries representing all regions of the world, all legal and political systems and the spectrum of socio/economic development" (Oceans and LOS, 2007).
Territorial sea is a region up to but not exceeding 12 nautical miles from a baseline. Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) are areas not exceeding 200 nautical miles from the baseline in which the coastal State has exclusive mining rights to natural resources. While coastal States maintain sovereignty of territorial sea, foreign vessels are permitted "innocent passage" without prejudice.
The International Seabed Authority
The International Seabed Authority controls the extraction of minerals and other natural resources from the seabed in the Area, defined in Part I, Article I of the Law of the Sea as the seabed beyond the "national jurisdiction," which we understand as outside EEZs.
The Assembly
The Assembly of the Authority, its "supreme organ" with the power to establish general policies, consists of all ISA members. This membership is composed of all parties to the Law of the Sea Convention, numbering 153 at the end of February 2007Territorial sea is a region up to but not exceeding 12 nautical miles from a baseline. Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) are areas not exceeding 200 nautical miles from the baseline in which the coastal State has exclusive mining rights to natural resources. While coastal States maintain sovereignty of territorial sea, foreign vessels are permitted "innocent passage" without prejudice.
UN Organizations
The UN has several branches to conduct research, compose law, enforce treaties, and settle disputes regarding the Law of the Sea and subsequent treaties relating to the governance of the oceans, coasts, and marine life.
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ICES continues by analyzing the effectiveness of different management plans for their ability to improve the health of the stock and their compliance with any international or national agreements to which the ecoregion may be subject. In general, plans are considered acceptable if they show that there is very little (less than 5%) chance that the plan will result in a spawning stock biomass less than the already defined critical level.\[12\] |
After selecting a management plan for each stock, scientists examine the effects of stock interaction and adjust their models accordingly. In the final phase, the effects of the management plan on the ecosystem are examined. Because this portion of the review is new, concrete standards have not been defined, and ways to quantify impacts on the ecosystem are still being researched. If findings show that the health of the ecosystem warrants special restrictions, however, those restrictions are incorporated into the management plan.
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+Works Cited+ \[1\] "About us - What do we do?," [http://www.ices.dk/aboutus/aboutus.asp] (accessed November 15, 2007) \[2\] Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America are members of ICES. Australia, Chile, Greece, New Zealand, Peru, and South Africa are affiliate countries. \[3\] The ICES Strategic Plan (Copenhagen, DK: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 2002), [http://www.ices.dk/iceswork/strategic%20plan-final.pdf] (accessed November 15, 2007). \[4\] Ibid. \[5\] Ibid. \[6\] "About us - ICES Structure," [http://www.ices.dk/aboutus/structure.asp] (accessed November 15, 2007). \[7\] Report of the ICES Advisory Committee on Fishery Management, Advisory Committee on the Marine Environment and Advisory Committee on Ecosystems, 2006. \[8\] Ibid. \[9\] Ibid. \[10\] Ibid. \[11\] Ibid. \[12\] Ibid. |